I rarely compare myself to Ovid, and must presume that most of my readers share that virtue with me. But I must bow to circumstances—said circumstances being the following. Because I try to mix things up in this blog, I am reluctant to deal with scholarly and “medieval” topics in successive weeks. That’s how Ovid felt about his own literary effusions. Apparently worrying that he was in danger of getting the reputation of a Johnny OneNote erotic poet, he sat down to write a martial epic—you know, like the big boys, Homer and Virgil. You probably also know that the verse form required of the Latin military epic is the hexameter, a line of six metrical feet, as opposed to love poetry, in which hexameter and pentameter (five-foot) lines alternate in couplets. But the moment he wrote his first hexameter lines, Ovid tells us, diabolical Cupid, who was watching over his shoulder, reached down and plucked away one of his meters. So he had to write the Amores instead. The devil made him do it.
Well, I was already mulling this over during my recent experience in some very unkempt local woods where I sometimes walk, when I stumbled (figuratively, fortunately) upon the fallen fruits of two osage orange trees I had not before noticed. That probably would have led to my Uncle Wayne’s tales of tank warfare in the hedgerows of Normandy. But just then there arrived in the post from my friend John Raimo, inveterate reader and pusher of good reading, the gift of something good to read, a very slim volume entitled Double Portrait: Saint Francis in Dante and Giotto.* Dante was a great writer, Giotto a great painter, and both were Florentines, possibly born within a year of each other. Francis is perhaps the most famous male saint in the Roman Church. So it is an inevitable topic, and hardly new, though here treated in an engaging way by Massimo Cacciari, an ex-Communist philosopher, prolific public intellectual, and former mayor of Venice. I read most of this book in a couple of sleepless hours of the night, and knew immediately that I would have to put the osage oranges back on ice. Which is indeed what you do have to do with osage oranges if you want to stratify the seeds. But it just so happens that the subject of visual and literary treatments of Francis by medieval painters and writers has been one of my long-standing interests. That is doubtless why John sent me this little book, and it explains why it was at least plausible that the Franciscan Institute should award me their Francis Medal a few years back.
The linkage of both Giotto and
Francis with Dante is almost inevitable, and there have been many essays
inspired by it. Cacciari’s own emphasis
is that, in his view, the visual “take” of Giotto and the literary one of Dante
present two very different Francises. This
is a little less surprising than Cacciari tries to make it.
Massimo Cacciari
Indeed it was nearly required by what must certainly have been Giotto’s closely invigilated commission to do the famous Assisi sequence. Francis had been a challenging and controversial figure since his arrival on the historical scene at the end of the twelfth century. There are probably twenty versions of Saint Francis current even now, the most popular in this country being the peacenik animal lover and supervisor of bird baths. In the time of Dante and Giotto—both of whom were born decades after Francis’s death—differing visions about the meaning of Francis were still not entirely resolved within the Church. Was he simply the remarkable founder of a remarkable new religious order? Or was his proclamation of a doctrine of absolute “evangelical” poverty a unique and apocalyptic intrusion of sacred history? Certainly that doctrine was a challenge and a threat to many—particularly people who were financially comfortable, beginning with Francis’s own father.
Conflict between these two visions brought strife into the Order, and to a degree the whole Church, throughout the later thirteenth century and into the fourteenth. In the 1260s there was an attempt to suppress all the earliest accounts of Francis and supplant them with one officially sanctioned biography by Saint Bonaventure, the head of the Order. This book is a literary masterpiece that comes very close to reconciling two irreconcilable visions, and it is the main textual source for most paintings dealing with the narrative content of Francis’s life, including Giotto’s. Dante’s “word pictures” are much more daring and adventurous. In a short essay one example will have to serve.
Giotto's Francis
In the Divine Comedy Dante’s treatment of Francis is part of a “double portrait” different from the one of which Cacciari writes. It is balanced by a portrait of Dominic, founder of the Order of Preachers (Dominicans). In Dante’s poem Francis is praised through the voice of Thomas Aquinas, greatest of Dominican theologians; Dominic is praised by Bonaventure, greatest of Franciscan theologians. Many contemporaries believed that the two founders were divine messengers sent by God to renew the Church. They found many signs in the Bible to encourage their belief.
For example, there are between ten and twenty thousand species of birds known to ornithologists. And since Noah is supposed to have had seven pairs of each, the sound track of his navigation must have been symphonic. Yet the Bible singles out only two birds for designated roles. To scout out whether the Flood is truly receding he sends off first a raven and then a dove. The allegorical meaning of this initiative was obvious to thirteenth-century apocalyptics. For the renovation of the Church following the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 God had sent into the world two great new missionary armies: the black friars (Dominicans) and the gray friars (Franciscans)--the colors of the habits of the principal mendicant orders. But if you are going to be truly apocalyptic, your best bet is not Genesis but the Apocalypse (Book of Revelation) itself.
Here are some of the words (the English of which no two translators share) with which Dante introduces Francis. “[In Assisi] was born into the world a sun, as sometimes it arises from the Ganges. But he who speaks of this place should not say Ascesi, which would be speaking short, but Oriente, if he would speak properly.” Ascesi, a far-fetched pun on the Italian name of Francis’s birthplace, is a Latin preterit from ascendo—to rise. Oriente comes from another verb of similar meaning—orior—but one that very early took on the job of denoting the sunrise. For people everywhere that was a phenomenon that appeared in the east—that is, the Orient. So Francis is not merely a solar riser, but an oriental solar riser. The evangelist Luke, weaving together a medley of old Hebrew prophecies, wrote thus of the prophetic mission of John the Baptist to announce the coming of Jesus “to give knowledge of salvation unto [Israel] by the remission of their sins, through the tender mercy of our God, whereby the dayspring from on high hath visited us” (Luke 1:77-78) It is obvious what Dante had in mind. The most radical of the poverty fanatics insisted that Francis of Assisi, Francis of the Arising, was the Sixth Angel of the Apocalypse. And I saw another angel ascending from the rising of the sun, having the seal of the living God…(Rev. 7:2). That “seal” was the markings of the stigmata, the very wounds of crucifixion transferred to the body of Francis from the body of Jesus Christ, the dayspring from on high and the chief of all Risers. Francis was an alter Christus, a “second Christ”. It’s mind-boggling, but that is what Dante is actually saying (Paradiso 11:49-54).
Many historians continue to insist that there is an “unchanging human nature” that enables us to feel considerable confidence about writing of past societies very different from our own. But even our own documentable familial, tribal, national, political, religious, and cultural pasts—meaning those well recorded in public and private records—are enough to challenge this assumption. I am now in my eighties, and when I compare what I know about the lives of my grandparents with what I know about the lives of my grandchildren, I feel I am already halfway to encountering two different species. And that is before we have even scratched history’s surface. The differentness—or to use a fancy word, the alterity—even within groups of linguistic hegemony and blood kinship over a period of not more than a hundred and fifty years—is truly astonishing. And they hardly even rank as “historical” in the way we think about history. The medieval European materials I touch upon here widen the lens on the totality of human history only very slightly. The past is truly the most foreign of foreign lands. And we inevitably tend to try to remake it according to our own contemporary liking.
*Massimo Cacciari, Doppio ritratto: San Francesco in Dante e Giotto. (Milan: Adelphi, 2012), pp. 88.
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